EES 360: Importance of Forests in India

            India is known for being a natural resource dependent country as can be seen by the fact the 70 percent of the country’s population live in rural areas. These people are directly dependent on the land for food, the forests for fuels, etc. This means that well over 700 million people are directly interacting with the natural resources of India not to mention the 30 percent that live in urban areas that more indirectly put pressure on natural resources with their consumption. All this being said, the natural resources of India are under great pressure and are very hard to regulate. Resources like the forest are especially hard to regulate as they are commonly used and it is hard to exclude people from using them.

            It is generally accepted that India has about 20 percent forest cover, which provides a great number of resources for surrounding communities from building material to food to even medicine. These people who are dependent on the forest are referred to as “ecosystem people” as they are dependent on the forest ecosystem and their role in it for their livelihood. With this in mind it would make sense that the conservation of the forest are in the best interest of those people living around and depending on the forests. However, there are still problems in reaching conservation goals. Firstly, although these people are dependent upon conserving the forest, they are often not formally educated in conservation practices. After all these people are trying to survive making a “conservation for conservation’s sake” argument not viable. Secondly, India’s population shows a never-ceasing, rapid growth in population, putting further stress on the natural resources. More and more people are living near the forest and exploiting them for their basic needs. Furthermore, as population booms so does the need for food causing an increase in the land used for agriculture. In many cases forest areas will be sacrificed for growing or grazing land

            Other conservation issues include more historic clearing of forests: 70 percent of the mountain forest above 4,000 ft have been cleared to make way for tea plantations. These plants not only add to deforestation numbers but have their own set of environmental problems as it is said that each plant consumes over 40 types of chemicals in it’s lifetime. Another problem is that those most dependent on the forest and therefore those who could be convinced of conservation’s importance (again if it did not hinder their survival) are often from tribal communities specifically scheduled tribes and scheduled castes. ST’s in particular have little power to make their voices heard both socially and politically.

            Therefore, an argument for conservation of forest must be made to the nation as a whole and those holding the power. It is simple, the forest is a life source for a large portion of the Indian people but they are also important to the nation as a whole. Deforestation is having a nationwide affect. For example, somewhere between 4.7 and 12 billion tons of topsoil are lost each year and while there is not exact proportion that can be attributed to deforestation it is a widely accepted fact that forest cover protects soil. Another important role of forest is the ability to act as a carbon sink. With India’s ever growing population not to mention their increasing number of cars, India is rapidly producing more and more CO2 emissions. Protecting forests and even helping to expand forest cover should be a key policy point as India looks to reduce carbon emissions among other measures such as improving engine requirements (many of India’s vehicles run on highly inefficient diesel engines), improving public transportation, etc.

            Finally, when making policy to protect forests, it must be done in the right way – that is in a way the does not exclude those most dependent on them, the ST’s. India like many other countries has aspects of a political economy that leads to the distribution of natural resources being tied up in politics. If these politics respect the rights of the ST’s and SC’s depending on the forest then India can head towards conservation successfully. While the political power of ST’s is an entirely different cultural and social conundrum, I would still like to suggest policy that I hope includes their concerns. Firstly, I would suggest that the British idea of “scientific forestry” that has historically been used to ensure “sustainable use of the forest” but has simultaneously excluded tribal communities from forest use, be reexamined. Is timber production in India actually sustainable? Are the tribes who are dependent on the forests surviving? These questions must be answered to have a truly fair conservation policy. I also suggest that those who know the forest, usually the tribal women who know what plants they need for food, wood, fuel and medicine, be consulted when undertaking reforestation projects so that the forest will have the greatest potential for sustainable use in the future.

            Conserving the forest of India has a number of social, cultural and political issues that come with it. However, the forest are integral part of life for millions of people directly and billions of people indirectly and for this reason deforestation and reforestation must be examinedcastes. ST’s in particular have little power to make their voices heard both socially and politically. 

Bonded Labor and the Family Life Institute

            What is bonded labor? Typically it occurs when people are given high interest loans and thus forced into paying back their debts by working for their lender. More than that it is a psychological control over an indebted person that often enslaves entire families for generations. This practice is illegal in the US as well as the practice of predatory loans, which have only recently been banned by the US government. That it is not to say that bonded labor does not exist in the US, but globally there is even less protection for these indentured servants.

            What kind of work do these laborers perform? This is again a more complex question than it appears. Bonded labor is part of the sex trafficking industry and child labor operations but it also part of more hidden activities. Bonded laborers can be hidden in remote brick yards or in plain sight as house workers. These instances of hidden bonded labor make estimating numbers of laborers very difficult, but I will try to give you a few general global statistics:

-       Approx. 12.3 million forced laborers world wide. Of this…

-       2.4 million are trafficked

-       9.8 million are exploited by private agents

-       2.5 million work for state or rebel military regimes

-       56% are women and girls

-       40-50% are children

-       (Statistics from Prof. Prince Solomon, MCC)

            In India bonded labor is an ever present problem plagued by domestic trafficking, paid off police and extremely poor population that are extremely vulnerable to these Kandha Vatis or loan sharks as we would call them in the US. However, there are social workers and organizations fighting against the bonded labor system in India, performing raids and offering rehabilitation services for those they liberate. We were lucky enough to visit one such organization run through Madras Christian College called the Family Life Institute.

            The Family Life Institute works to release bonded laborers as well as offering services to reintroduce these people into society with their new found freedom. These services include classes and counseling, health services, a maternal care program, work opportunities, and a school for their children. We heard a few of their stories through Professor Solomon of MCC who works in the social work department as well as acting as one of the directors of the FLI. He started by telling us about the difficulties with successfully completing raid, the major difficulty being police corporation. First, the social workers must covertly gather evidence of a bonded labor operation including recordings of the testimonies from the laborers themselves. Only then will they order a warrant and employ the police force for the raid. Professor Solomon emphasized the fact that social workers are forced to keep their activities and plans hidden from the police until the last moments for fear that the police will tip off the organizers of these labor camps. This is just once tragic facet of the bonded labor scheme in India. It is hard for me to imagine trying to make any change in a system where the authority that we so rely on in the US, is just as much your enemy as the people you are trying to implicate. Finally, there are often middle men organizing the trafficking of these people that are nearly impossible to trace adding to the persistence of the system.

            Professor Solomon also told of the difficulties that are faced immediately after the liberation of these people. Part of why the bonded labor scheme is so enslaving is the psychological aspect. Often the situation could be that the laborer has paid their debt long ago, but they remain trapped, sometimes for generations, because they have no concept have how much of their loan they have paid. They are convinced that their debt is still unpaid and furthermore, the employer convinces them that they have no other options. They enslave families by forcing children work to pay their parents debt; they play mind games setting up their workers to feel a sense of trust with them. These barriers have to be broken to convince the newly liberated workers that they are indeed free. There are still more effects of the bonded labor including depression, domestic violence and alcoholism. The day we visited the FLI, Professor Solomon was visiting a group of recently freed laborers to teach a class about domestic violence. These people could be uneducated or unfamiliar with Tamil or English as they are often from many different parts of the country, so he uses illustrations to make his point. Although we were not present at this class (we were doing some work at the school house) it was interesting to hear about his successes and his difficulties in rehabilitating these people.  

            Working with Professor Solomon and the FLI opened my mind to the true fact of what is bonded labor. Hearing statistics is much different than understanding the far reaching social and psychological effects of this indentured labor system. Although Professor Solomon repeatedly emphasized the difficulties they often faced and the small part they were playing in a much larger picture, it gave me hope that this program even exists. The FLI is growing in size and publicity, even making short films that tell the stories of bonded laborers. This work of making the issue more known is perhaps the most important work they can do in moving towards an elimination of bonded labor.

Auroville: A Not So Ideal Community

                Upon the announcement that would be visiting Auroville, an experimental living community near Pondicherry, I was at first excited. Having visited another experimental community named EarthHaven last year as well as having spent an entire semester my freshman year studying utopian communities in one of my seminars, I was excited to make comparisons. This is of course not to mention the fact that alternative communities appeal to my general discontent with the present state of affairs on a personal level. What I found in Auroville was much different. They are certainly not a utopian community, which was made clear to our group at a few of our stops. What was clear to me is that Auroville is truly a grand experiment lacking cohesion and plagued with contradictions.

                There are many parts of Auroville that appealed to me, but these were very specific pockets of the community. For example, our first stop was a non-profit organization based within the community called Upansa. This organization focused on a variety of  projects that had interests in protecting the environment, employing local women, participating in disaster relief, protected farmers, etc. So far, I am more than on board with Auroville; Upansa sounds like something I can whole-heartedly support. I felt the same way on visiting the Earth Institute, a sustainable, earth-based building company. They had studied soils extensively (I loved the wall of global soil samples) and had developed their own earthen brick making machinery that was operated entirely by manual labor, no fossil fuels required. Again, here was an aspect of Auroville that greatly intrigued me. However, these were only small pockets within Auroville, and as the day progressed and the greater ideals of the community were revealed to us, I grew more and more agitated.

                Here I suppose I should give a brief history of Auroville. Auroville was begun by a woman, Mirra Alfassa, more fondly referred to within Auroville as “The Mother” in 1968. The Mother, a woman of Egyptian descent living in Paris during the students’ movement, saw this as “a time to experiment with new structures of life, a new way of being and thinking,” (Dr. Aster Patil). The Mother believed that man was a “transitional being” needing to meet both his material and spiritual needs in order to be completely whole. The ideals of Auroville include the idea that Auroville is owned by no one and there is no politics or religion; Auroville is simply governed by the Foundation of Auroville and is autonomous, for the most part, from the Indian government. Finally, Auroville was constructed on barren land that as the story was told to us, was completely wasted by the tribal people who lived there before the current residents, with absolutely no growth except for a single banyan tree that still stands today. Therefore, the people of Auroville are environmental champions that have restored the land nearly to its former livelihood. Finally, at the center of Auroville is a large golden globe, the Matrimandir. This huge structure was conceived by the Mother as a symbol of man’s striving towards perfection and the birth of divine humanity. Inside the structure is a white marble room for meditation, by appointment of course.

                Thus with the introduction of the “ideals” of the community as well as the sight of the Matrimandir, my frustrations began. Our tour guide repeatedly told us that Auroville was not based on any religion or politics, yet everywhere we looked there was a religious devotion to the Mother and her mandates. After all the Matrimandir was constructed based solely on her recommendation, even though there is growing opposition within the community. I could chalk this up to my own perceptions, mistaking her constant quotations and ever present portrait for religious devotion. Yet I can still find criticism. My major complaint with Auroville comes back to the Matrimandir. Even if I can move past the suspicious ideals and the contradictions, I cannot get past the fact that Auroville is a community shunning capitalism and the current systems society is operating under, yet they have one of the most outstanding displays of affluence I have ever seen at their center in the Matrimandir. Everything about this structure bothers me. It is entirely unsustainable and a waste of resources – the lands surrounding Auroville were certainly not plentiful in gold reserves or marble outcrops. Furthermore, the structure is surrounded by twelve manicured gardens that require hundreds of man hours and countless resources to construct and maintain (though I must say this tongue-in-cheek as a student at Furman). I understand that environmental sustainability is not at the core of Auroville, but it does bother me that the environmental restoration of this land was preached to us while around us I found countless signs of degradation. Finally, my major complaint is this: Matrimandir is undoubtedly a multi-million dollar project (the real cost was never disclosed) that took place in one of the poorest countries in the world. There were even people within Auroville without housing, yet construction on the Matrimandir’s gardens continued full-steam ahead. It is hard for me to stomach this community dominated by westerners and clearly affluent that as a whole appears to be self-centered, ignoring the needs of the worlds poorest that press in all around them. Again I am probably over generalizing, but these are my impressions.

                I can appreciate aspects of Auroville. I can even appreciate that it is an experimental community that allows its residents to explore their own structures and systems of human life. If this was all of Auroville that I knew, I could even see myself living there. Here I should note that it was mentioned to us, though only in passing, that some Aurovillians do not subscribe to the philosophy of the Mother and they are not ostracized for this fact at all. However, I would never be able to stomach Matrimandir. I would never be able to live within India, knowing all I know about the poverty and people of India, in a place that seems so removed from the Indian people and their woes.

The Great Pondy

We took our first trip this past weekend to Pondicherry or The Great Pondy  as our MCC buddies call it. It was an exhausting 6 day journey, but I saw so many more versions of India along the way that I felt like I visited a few different countries, maybe even another planet along the way.

Dakshina Chitra:

Tricked out rickshaw at Dakshina Chitra

Our first stop was Dakshina Chitra. It is set up as a traditional artisan village in order to preserve the cultures of southern India. Watching traditional glass artists and tapestry painters was certainly worthwhile but just like an American tourist attraction, we had to walk through the gift shop (in this case set up like a charming market) in order to see the actual attraction. The vendors kept calling to me "Madame, madame, come look," something I am finding all to common wherever I go in India. The one unique thing about this "gift shop" was that you could haggle over prices with the sellers. I wasn't taken in by any of the so-called handicrafts but a few of my fellow students were very proud of their bargaining skills that got them a bamboo hanging for 800 rupees rather than 1500.



Ganesh :)


We spent the night at the Taj Hotel, a place equivalent to somewhere people would stay on their honeymoon. Who said study abroad can't be luxurious? But I won't bore with the details of a hotel except to say that 18 college students playing volleyball in the pool can clear the entire area in under 5 minutes.














Mamallapuram:


Temple reliefs and a goat



We spent all day Friday at Mamallapuram, a sight of many Hindu temples and reliefs, some finished and some left only partially complete. Our guide was Dr. Suri (remember the Gandhi-like man with the John Lennon glasses?). He told us the stories that the panels depicted from Durga defeating the bull-headed demon to Shiva saving a village from the floods of Ganga. But perhaps the most memorable part was seeing Veena argue with the "tour guides" that apparently own the temples. As soon as we stepped off the bus they tried to lead us on their version of the tour of the temple. Veena made it clear that we were not in need of their services cursing them in Tamil and English alike. Suri was afraid of these men but they were much more afraid of Veena. Still, I am finding that people will do anything to make a buck in India from offering you a tour you don't need to charging you extra to bring your camera along with you at multiple stops with in the same venue. The ingenuity and perseverance of these people is amazing.

Krishna's butterball

Auroville:

Laboratory of evloution?!

What can I say about Auroville? It is an experimental community near Pondicherry, settled amongst native villages striving to help the communities around them with handicraft projects, working on sustainable projects and striving to reach the ideal form of humanity based on the teachings of the "Mother." On paper the idea of Auroville is very appealing to me but as I spent more and more time there I became more and more dissatisfied. I appreciate many aspects of Auroville from the tsunami relief they do with village women to the earthen house design project at the Earth Institute. However, there are many aspects of Auorville that seem contradictory to me. They claim to have no religious or political affiliation yet they quote the "Mother" as if her word is supreme (seriously don't get me started on how a French-Egyptian woman can start a "revolution" in India). There's also the fact that they shun capitalism yet rely on the products that India's capitalistic economy is producing. They are far from self-sustaining in any way and what about the Eco-refugees whose land their society of mostly foreigners is built upon? And then there is their great golden ball of meditation meant to represent the birth of humanity or something. Seriously there is a huge golden sphere in the middle of the community that had to cost millions of dollars to construct surrounded by 12 gardens of artificial beauty. I can't see how this multi-million dollar project can be justified on the Mother's word when they are surrounded by some of the most impoverished people in the world. While Auroville is beautiful and in some aspects appealing to me, by the end I felt like I had left the planet on the Mother Ship (pun definitely intended). Stupid golden globe.




Soil samples of the world = EES majors freak out



Golden sphere of suck

Pondy and Ganesha Temple:



Yep, still in India.

On a happier note we made it to the certain of Pondicherry by Sunday. At this point I really did feel like we had left the country what with being surrounded by colonial French architecture. But of course India hits you in the face just when you least expect it. This happened to me outside the Ganesha temple:

1. There were so many people trying to sell me things. Seriously don't want your fake peacock feather fan even if it is free.

2. Why is there a Hannah Montana mobile in India at all

3. People get real pissed if you watch your own shoes outside the temple rather than paying for their service

and...
 4. I got blessed by an elephant named Lakshmi! In exchange for a two rupee coin Lakshmi will bless you with her trunk (a very odd sensation) and let me tell you that elephant was making bank.



Lakshmi the elephant who blessed us



Market right outside the temple.

 

Chidambaram Natraja:

 Our final stop before heading back to MCC was Chidambaram Natraja. This has got to be one of the coolest things I have seen on this trip so far. It is a massive ancient temple surrounded by four gobrams or gateways meticulously adorned with hundreds of painted figures. And once you walk inside you see that this ancient place is still so alive and busy. We were actually allowed into the inner sanctum (sorry no pictures, at least not for westerners) where there were sages clothed in white performing blessings and rituals with coconuts and ash and so many people praying at various reliefs along the temple walls. It was senses overload with smells of smoke and incense and the sound of ringing bells and so much color. Definitely one of the most interesting experiences of my life thus far. Of course there was also the fact that I happened to have the same top knot in my hair as all the sages. Perhaps I was a Brahman priest in a former life?

One of the gobras into the temple and the temple pond

Creeper shot of one of the sages from the temple, we had matching hair!

All in all it was a great long weekend that taught me once again, you cannot neatly define India. It is so many different things in so many ways. You can't anticipate what you will experience in India you have to participate in it.



Only in India

Here's a list of the things that I have experienced that are, in my opinion, experiences and things unique to India. Some of them are things I love, some are things that challenge me, all are unforgettable.

• John Lennon concert at MCC. Definitely the greatest and most unexpected first night in India. All of the students and professors were great singers and musicians. And Suri, the MCC professor that will be with us for all of our trips, is so adorable and charismatic. He looks so much like Gandhi but make no mistake, he wears his circle rim glasses to emulate John.
• A baby cow chasing me on the side of the road so it could catch up with its mother. The loud mooing that suddenly came from right behind me was pretty surprising.
• Twelve adults in a rickshaw. I was sitting on the wooden board that was part of the "window." Half of my body was inside the vehicle and the rest was hanging on for dear life. It was scary and exhilarating. At least I had the best seat in the house.
• Seeing five people on one motorcycle. A dad, mom and three children. Side note, only the father was wearing a helmet, which seems to be pretty common in Chennai.
• Four tea breaks a day. If I wasn't addicted to caffeine before, I am now. Masala chai, mmm-mmm.
• Drinking straight from a coconut. It was not what I expected, more salty than I ever would have guessed. I still can't decide if I like it or not.
• The movie Speed playing on Indian TV in English with English subtitles. Seriously, this movie would only play in India unfortunately for the country.
• Open sewers in the streets where the water runs blue and gray and is edged in trash. The smell is almost unbearable for me. I am starting to understand water quality issues so much more. Furthermore, the amount of pollution and trash everywhere is astonishing. It cannot be explained.
• On a lighter note: nannanananananananan, I love nan soooooooo much.
• Also rice in some form at nearly every meal.
• There is a culture of men  touching men and women touching women. Because they cannot interact with the opposite sex, friends are very affectionate with each other. It is not weird at all as it would be back home. Instead it is very loving and widely accepted.
• At MCC, women have a curfew of 6:30. What the what? Gender inequality in my face. We as study away students don't have to follow this rule, but it makes it that much more weird feeling to be one of very few women out during the nights.
• Mango every thing!!! No seriously, everything. This morning I had mango cornflakes.
• Exchanging money at the bank was quite an event involving more paper copies than I have ever seen. I miss my online banking.
• Pick-n-Pack! I love that place soooo much. It's an Indian convenience store just down the road from MCC. I bought some more shampoo (I hope my hair starts cooperating), laundry detergent, etc. and three diet cokes. In all I got about seven things for about 8 USD. It was fantastic.
• Bucket baths, who knew? So refreshing and awesome and life changing.
• Eating with your hands, also who knew? There is actually a specific technique (only the right hand) and reasons behind the practice. Also, it makes you eat slower and enjoy the food more.
• Crossing the road in Chennai is terrifying. Even when I see old women strolling across the highway not bothering to look and with no fear, I still am terrified. Though last night I crossed all by myself...and proceeded to almost get hit by a motorcycle (sorry mom). Still at least I am getting better at it.
• Playing ultimate frisbee with our new Indian friends. They caught on so quickly and we got quite the impressive game going. Not to mention that running around barefoot in the dirt and mud is so much fun. Shout out to new Indian friends Das, Fawaz, Sujin and more.
• Sitting in my Eno hammock, looking out into the scrub jungle that is MCC. There are deer and wild boars and all other sorts of exciting flora and fauna all around. I am basically on vacation.
• Neem...is not my favorite thing.
• SOS Children's Village is great. It is a home for orphaned children that works on the basis of families rather than a centralized orphanage. It is such a neat place and it is right outside of campus. The staff said we could come back and play with the kids anytime, I'm excited.
• Finally, the food and accommodations at MCC are totally incredible and more than I could ever ask for. Curry for every meal is definitely something I could do forever.

Well that's just a handful of things I have experienced here in only the first four days. I know this trip will hold so many more adventures and experiences.  I'll keep you posted.

Joy

Traveling to India: A Schedule

*I have slept maybe six hours in the past 48 hours so don't judge.

October 6:
7am: Wake up call from Jeri Bug so I can roll out of bed and head to the airport
8:15am: Arrive at GSP and check-in. I have definitely packed the lightest, should I be worried?
10:20am: Take off from GSP. Everyone is a mix of nervous silence and giddy laughter. No one wants to sleep as part of our jet-lag-aversion-master-plan that soon falls apart.
11:35am: Touchdown in Dulles, DC. We have such a long way to go...
Noonish: Eat lunch at Chipolte in the airport. A line of 18 students and 2 professors, I hope no one else wanted lunch.
1:58pm: Serena kicks my butt in ERS. She hasn't lost a game in a really long time.
3:25pm: Board the plane for Frankfurt. I was part of the first group of 6 going and apparently the lucky group. The second group was delayed and didn't have individual screens or movie options and had to endure three crying babies.

The DC to Frankfurt flight, (times still in US times):
4:47pm: We are served dinner on the flight. It is early and I am not hungry but I eat my "special vegetarian meal" anyways. Pretty decent for airplane food, way to go Lufthansa.
5-7pm: Watch the "Green Lantern" on my mini screen. It wasn't awesome but hey at least I had a mini screen. The poor second group was stuck with one large screen showing Cars 2 without sound. Sucks to suck.
7:07pm: Look up and realize everyone around me is watching Modern Family or 30 Rock. Seems like a much better plan and I proceed to "WatchEnjoy" in Lufthansa terms.
8:30-11:15pm: Try to sleep without much success. I can literally not find a comfortable position. I doze for about 15 minutes at a time.
11:20pm: We are served "breakfast" as it is now 4 something in the morning German time. Bread in package and strange yellow fruit are not appealing to my seasick stomach. At this point, all the time on the plane is beginning to wear on me.

Switch to German time, it's now Oct 7.:
5ish am: Land in Frankfurt and try to make our way to our terminal. It is literally the most remote place in the airport, the ever elusive B46. At least we get to see all the food and shopping options along the way. The duty free store reeks of perfumes and adds to my headiness.
5:45am: Eat breakfast (I guess my second?) at a cafe in the airport. I manage to get my hands on a "CocaCola Light." Oh delicious!
6:15-7:20am: Sleep in the airport on a few chairs curled in the fetal position. Why is it sooo cold?
7:30am: The second group arrives in the terminal very loudly. They are a little grumpy from their flight on an old 747 rather than our fancy airbus.
9:45am: Go exploring with Serena. I buy two Ritter Sport bars in a convenience shop because I love chocolate...a lot.
10:30am: Begin boarding the plane for Chennai. No easy feat with 20 people, but we do it rather efficiently.

Flight from Frankfurt to Chennai:
*Times become extremely confusing to me here as the lack of sleep sets in. The rest of October 7 basically disappears. It's crazy.
11:25am: As we take off I begin to immediately doze off. FINALLY. Except that I can't stay asleep for more than 30 minutes. I am constantly waking up to readjust my position. But hey, at least it is a little rest.
12:30pm: I am woken up by a stewardess. We are served lunch? dinner? I don't know anymore. I am served the "western" vegetarian meal, but would much rather have the Indian vegetarian curry dish than my overly peppered pasta. I am also very nauseous at this point from lack of sleep and the constant "I'm on a boat" swaying feeling. I feel like my head is no longer attached to my body.
12:30-2:00pmish: More intermittent sleep.
After 2: I wake up and feel rested enough and begin to watch Thor. I pause this a lot to talk to people around me or "rest my eyes" or whatever because the fact is, it just doesn't hold my attention. Who knew you would get so many movie reviews in a blog about India?

*Time really starts to go crazy here. I switch my watch to Indian time and am so, so confused.
12:30am (India time): Caitlin and I realize we have the same birthday, two years apart. She proceeds to tell the entire plane.
1amish: We are informed that the plane in front of ours has malfunctioned and is stopped on the runway and can't be moved. At 1:05 this changes to "crashed." Bad translation? Hopefully.
1:15am: We are informed that we have to fly to Bangalore to refuel and then fly back to Chennai for our final landing. Say what?!
1:45am: Land in Bangalore for refueling. The stewardesses try to keep us in our seats but that is just not happening. We are told that we should be back in Chennai by 2:45 but as Dr. Khandke says and hour in India always means at least 2.
3:45am: Land in Chennai! Since I know my crazy times confuse you, that was thirteen hours on one plane. Luckily I haven't gone crazy yet.
4:00am waiting in a line in immigration/customs. It gets a little hairy there for a second as they are suspicious of a large group of college students traveling together with no student visas. We promise we aren't registered for classes here!
4:35am: We get to baggage claim. This takes at least half an hour and for a few minutes I seriously fear that my luggage has been lost. But somehow we all manage to get all of our bags, yay!
5:05am: Enter India. We step outside the airport and walk down a small runway lined with hundreds of Indian faces. I am overwhelmed by my first experience as the clear minority in a situation. Luckily we meet Suri, our head man in charge for our stay at MCC. He leads us to the vans ignoring the honking and heckling.
5:15-5:40am: We travel by bus through Chennai to the MCC campus. Holy scary driving, it is like nothing I have ever seen. We see some very uniquely Indian things including two cows in the roads and a number of roadside shrines. Holy cow, I am in India.

*In case you missed it, it took us 36 hours, 36 minutes and 36 seconds to reach our destination (we know because Ryan timed us). But let me tell you, it was totally worth it.

6am: Upon arrival we are immediately served tea and biscuits, I love it. We also meet a few of the MCC staff and are shown our rooms. I sit on the bed only for a few seconds for fear I will pass out.
7am: I go for a walk around MCC with a few others. We see fruit bats, deer and so many plants. I am in love with the campus.
8am: We are served breakfast with both western and traditional Indian dishes. The rice dumplings and soup like dip they prepare for us is incredibly delicious.
9:05am: I go for another walk, this time with a different group of people. At one point I am literally inches from a full grown buck. They are beautiful, all still having white spots and being slightly shorter than North American deer.
9:30am: Serena, Elizabeth C and I go into a random wooded area through an inviting gate. It is an odd area that seems completely abandoned except for a few newly planted saplings. At the time it seemed very adventurous, but that could be the jet lag talking.
9:45am: Stumble upon a cricket game. We have never seen a match before and it is pretty interesting. However, we don't watch much of the game as we are soon approached by a group of friendly Indian men. They ask us for our "goodname" and tell us they work at IBM and that their boss, Shiva, "is a very good person, like you." They repeat this three times. They take pictures with us and upon leaving tell us we are all looking "very cute today." All in all a very amusing encounter.
10amish: We make it back to the guest house and sit outside for a bit. The air is very sticky, so we move inside to the dining hall and I begin this blog as a way to keep me awake. I am trying to save my nap for after lunch. As I continue to sit, it is becoming increasingly difficult, thus my continuous ramblings.

Things still yet to come today:
My first bucket shower, I am so looking forward to that.
A John Lennon tribute concert put on by MCC students.
Sleep.

That's all for now folks,
Joy

Geology and Nutrition in India

            In the US, we think of vitamins as gummy candies as children or as tailor made diet regimes as adults. Vitamins are trendy supplements to improve your energy levels or make your hair healthier. Places like GNC offer custom vitamin packs for virtually every kind of “lifestyle” from the active young woman to an aging man. With the exception of prenatal vitamins, these supplements are rarely prescribed as vital to our health, but rather as a way to improve our health. I am not saying that all supplements are frivolous. I know myself, as someone who is anemic and has to take an iron supplement daily, that vitamins can truly be beneficial to our welfare. But the fact is that most Americans get more than enough of our essential nutrients from our varied diets and the geology of our soils and waters. The fact is that in developing countries, people are facing true nutrient deficiencies. Sometimes it can be because their varied is not as varied as ours because they lack the vast food distribution system American enjoys. More often it is that the geology of the country causes shortages in the soil food is grown in and the water these people drink. Furthermore, people in these countries do not have access to an overabundance of vitamin supplements that Americans do. These supplements would truly make a difference in the health of these people.

            Sixteen mineral elements have been identified as essential for our bodies’ functions. These elements are essential for 1) bone and membrane structure, 2) water and electrolyte balance, 3) metabolic catalysis, 4) oxygen binding, and 5) hormone effects (Combs). For example, Fluoride is essential for new bone formation and protection of enamel from acid erosion. In America, fluoride can be found in almost all toothpastes and is often added to water supplies as well. Of course, there are even fluoride vitamin supplements. In India, fluoride intakes as become an issue for both wet and dry parts of the country. In wet regions of the country, fluoride, a highly mobile ion, is often leached out of drinking waters. Therefore, people in these regions experience increased cases of dental cavities and dental caries. In dry regions, the opposite is experienced. The fluoride concentration in the drinking water (mainly ground water) becomes too high. The excess fluoride in people’s diets hardens bones, decreasing elasticity and increasing instances of fracture. There are also cases of dental fluorosis or white streaking and staining on the teeth’s enamel (Selinus, et al).

            Iodine is another mineral we rarely think about in the US. In the US we almost exclusively take in iodized salt. This is not a fact that the rest of the world faces. In places where people are not taking in iodized salt, such as rural India, they can experience serious iodine deficiency disorders. Iodine is an important nutrient in thyroid function and lack of iodine can lead to thyroid hypertrophy or goiters. I imagine that many people in America have never seen or heard of goiters as we have had iodine in our diets regularly for years. But goiters aren’t even the most serious health effect of iodine deficiency. It is also the cause of myxedematous cretinism, the leading global cause of metal retardation (Combs).

            As already mentioned, much of our nutrient intake is related to our diet. For example, we know iron comes from red meats and green leafy vegetables, calcium comes from dairy and potassium comes from bananas, etc. However, it should be noted that our body cannot fully absorb all of the minerals found in these foods, so you cannot rely on the total mineral concentration in foods.  However, ultimately the minerals found in our food goes back to geology and the minerals found in our soils. Just like geology varies globally so do the bioavailability of nutrients. This is even truer in places like India. Food systems are often highly localized, limiting access to only the nearest soils and thus the food only has a limited number of minerals. This can be further exacerbated by low uptake by crops, as is the case of zinc and excessive leaking as is the case of iodine. In iodine, there have been many studies that directly correlate instances of goiters with geographic soil deficiencies. In developed countries like the US, interregional and even international food transfer helps make these soil variances a non-issue. But as already mentioned, this kind of food transfer system is not available in India. Furthermore, the diets of many Indians are lacking even the appropriate foods for a truly nutritious diet. This can be seen in the lack of meat consumption and the high rates of anemia due to lack of iron (Combs).

            As we take our morning vitamins, it might be helpful to think about our own dependence on vitamins. Are we taking the vitamins because our diets, our soil, our drinking water aren’t providing us with what we need? Or are we taking the supplements for supposed health improvement benefits? If it is the latter, consider how lucky we are to have vitamins as a choice not a worry.

Combs, Gerald, Geological Impacts on Nutrition.

Selinus, Olle. Finkleman, Robert. Centeno, Jose, Medical Geology: A Regional Synthesis.

The State of Renewable Energy in India

            India has the world’s fastest growing economy and are dramatically increasing their energy needs. The future of energy in India could play out in any number of ways and the world should be paying attention. With the second largest population in the world, whatever energy move India makes, it will have global effects. This report will focus on the fate of renewables in India, as investment in these renewables will have the greatest benefit for the environmental goals of not only India, but for the rest of the world as well.

            India is already facing energy issues when electricity is observed. In 2009-2010, there was a 10 percent gap, a 84TWh deficit, between India’s total energy needs and their supply (Indian Renewable Energy Status Report). With growing numbers of issues such as voltage fluctuations, blackouts, etc, India must close this gap for the overall welfare of their people, and investment in renewable power in increasingly looking like the best way to go.

            Are renewables in India even viable? As far as natural resources are concerned, India is in a very good position. Some parts of the country receive some of the highest solar irradiation worldwide. The miles of coastline offer vast opportunities for wind power both on and offshore. Also, considering the fact the India is currently around 80 percent rural, the potential to produce biomass for burning is tremendous (Indian Renewable Energy Status Report). However, this brings up another issue India will have to face when implementing new energy policies. The nature of India is variability and that is no different when it comes to energy sources. Therefore, there cannot be blanket investment in one type of energy for the country as a whole. Instead, local governments should increasingly play a role in deciding the energy fate of their particular region so that the resources in each region are being used to their full potential so energy can be produced most efficiently,

            This investment in renewable energy is important for India as they look towards an energy independent future. Currently, India imports over  two-thirds of their oil from foreign countries, particularly the Middle East. This leaves them vulnerable to market fluctuations and price gouging that can be a critical blow to their developing economy. These price shocks are becoming even more frequent as the global demand for oil increases. It is expected that by 2030, the price of oil will have risen by 46 percent. On the flip side, the price of renewable technologies is decreasing. In the same amount of time, the price of photovoltaic’s is expected to come down by half (Indian Renewable Energy Status Report).

            Renewable energies can also address some of the inequality issues that saturate Indian society. Localized renewable energies can bring energy to the rural people who currently lack the roads and grids necessary for receiving energy from centralized power plants, such as coal fire power plants. This is no small problem in India. Currently over 50 percent of people living in rural areas are living without electricity. An investment in renewable energies would also be an investment in closing this gap. With the ever-decreasing price of renewables, there is also the hope that electricity will be more affordable to all including both the urban and rural poor (Indian Renewable Energy Status Report).

            Finally, investment in renewable energy will have the always-beneficial element of reducing lower greenhouse gas emissions. India has the potential to be a world leader in the renewable sector and thus a leader in the environmental movement. Currently India emits 4 percent of global greenhouse gases but when looking at per capita emission, they are only a quarter of the average global per capita emissions and one-tenth of what most developed nations are emitting per capita (Indian Renewable Energy Status Report). . If India could continue this trend of low per capita emissions and even improve upon it they could have a huge impact globally.

            Already, India has begun to introduce more and more renewable energies into their grid. As of June 2010, 10 percent of India’s installed energy capacity was already renewable, wind energy being a large part of this category (Indian Renewable Energy Status Report). This investment is attracting investment from global countries looking to make renewables more viable on a global scale. If this trend continues, some of the economic burden of starting up these energy projects might be relieved from the Indian government. Furthermore, as new technologies are brought to India, their economy is boosted as new jobs are created. These jobs would be great assets to the Indian economy, one that is in transitions from reliance on the primary sector to the tertiary sector and the information age Indian Renewable Energy Status Report).

            India has great potential for leading the way in renewable energy investment. With great natural resources all they need now is proper investment. As renewable prices come down and their economy grows, this seems more viable each day. It is in the best interest of the Indian government to make this investment now in order to become a world leader in the future.

Source: Indian Renewable Energy Status Report

Hunger in India: Distribution over production flaws

            We have learned in class about the nourishment problems in India. We know about the high levels of wasting and stunting. The 2011 report on State of the World’s Children reports that in India 48 percent of children under 5 are undernourished, 20 percent are wasted and 48 percent are stunted (“State of the World’s Children 2011). These statistics are just a few of the indicators of hunger in India. What is the real cause behind hunger in India? More and more, researchers are arguing that it is not a production problem, but rather a distribution problem. The problem of distribution has a particularly harsh effect on the rural poor in India. I will look at the Public Distribution System (PDS) in India and how access to this program is determined.

            Food production in India has had an history of peaks and valleys just like in many other countries. India was once the world’s largest net importer of grain but their Green Revolution that focused on agriculturally promising areas and investment in promising farmers turned them into a net exporter in a matter of the few years between 1966 and 1972 (Swaminathan). In fact in the 1970’s, 1980’s and 1990’s, the rate of grain production exceeded the rate of population growth. Reserves were high as were spirits, but recently India has seen a downturn in their production numbers, now just barely keeping pace. This is due in large part to liberalization policies that brought a dramatic decrease in public funds designated to investment in agriculture and rural development. It also brought economic hardship on farmers by closing bank branches in rural areas, increased exclusion from the formal financial system (Swaminathan). However, what is still the greatest problem facing India is distribution. Yes, production may soon become strained or fall behind population growth, but if India cannot even distribute the food it already has no amount of excess production will cure the hunger problem.

           

            India has had a PDS since the 1940’s when distribution focused mainly on urban areas and was dependent on food imports. Once India became more self-sufficient in food production, the years of 1978 to 1991 saw a major expansion of this program. In recent times, the PDS has moved to a Targeted PDS (TPDS) another product of liberalization (Swaminathan). This new TPDS is being criticized for because it has “neither benefited the poor, or helped reduce budgetary food subsidies,” (Swaminathan). The main problems with the TPDS are cited as: exclusion of some of those who truly need food, less economic viability, no price stabilization and food not reaching the intended consumer (Swaminathan). The exclusion of “truly needy” people is an interesting aspect and one I will consider further.

            The objective of the current TPDS system, in the most basic terms, is to identify the poor and provide them with food. Households must be identified as below poverty line (BPL) households in ordered to be considred for the program. Notice I said considered, because there is a subset of the TPDS, the poorest of the poor or the “antoyoday anna yojana” or AAY households, which are the only households to be guaranteed 35 kilograms of food grains per month through fair price shops (FPS) with presentation of ration cards. The BPL households will only have food distributed to them after these AAY households have been satisfied and often there is not enough to go around. These ration cards provide food at a subsidized price and AAY cardholders have an significantly higher subsidy than BPL households. However, hunger in India extends outside of just the poorest families, meaning many of India’s hungry are left out of the TPDS completely. Households considered above the poverty line (APL) are given ration cards that rather than giving them food only allows them to buy food at FPS at prices close to the market value (Asthana). Furthermore, there is the problem of corruption in India. In 2007 it was ranked 72nd in Transparency International’s Corruption Perception Index. This can certainly be seen in the PDS. PDS ration cards are stolen and sold on the open market to people not classified or wrongly classified as poor and therefore entitled to food allotment. Also, there are instances when FPS’s do not receive any food allotment for the month because the food has been diverted to another FPS, region, etc. These “leakages” are not compensated in the next month and leakages increased with the remoteness of the FPS. This is made worse by the fact that generally it was found that greater remoteness (distance from nearest town) correlated with less access to food in general (Asthana).

            There were also interesting findings when looking at scheduled castes (SC) and scheduled tribes (ST). Asthana found that villages with more SC’s were less likely to receive their monthly allotment at the FPS. Villages with more ST’s were even less likely to receive allotment even when controlling remoteness as a variable (ST’s tend to live in the remotest locations as compared to other rural populations). Overall, the study by Asthana revealed that “access to subsidized food is limited by status in the caste hierarchy,” and scheduled tribes have even lower socio-economic indicators and access to food than scheduled castes (Asthana).

            Food production is no small matter in India, but the distribution systems in even worse condition. The TPDS leaves out many of the legitimately hungry by targeting the poor, or even more specifically, the poorest of the poor. Furthermore, corruption and leakages in the chain of supply causes the remotest, most rural populations to face the largest gaps in allotment. Finally, members of the lowest caste and members of indigenous tribes face the largest discrepancies with the TPDS due to perhaps discrimination and corruption. A return to the old PDS that focused on providing access to food for all seems to be in order as the TPDS’s many flaws are brought to light in new studies. Whatever India decides to do, distribution as well as food production should be the focus, distribution even more so than production.

Sources:

The State of the World’s Children 2011, Unicef.

Swaminathan, M. “Population and Food Security” Handbook of Populaiton and Development in India.

Asthana, A. N. “What determine access to subsidised food by the rural poor? Evidence from India” IDPR, 31(3). 2009. 

Nitrogen in India: Where it comes from and how it affects the people

            We all know that you can have too much of a good thing and the same is true for nitrogen. With the Green Revolution, the world thought the solution to world hunger was found in the form of nitrogen rich fertilizers (as well as new technologies, etc.) that dramatically increased yields and drastically reduced food prices. Yet hunger persists and now we have a new problem on our hands. Human use of nitrogen has grown to great excess and human alteration of the nitrogen cycle is having detrimental effects. One article stated that “human activity now fixes more atmospheric N₂ into reactive forms than all terrestrial natural processes combined,” Townsend et. al. 2003). We have had too much of a good thing. This situation can be seen playing out in India where the use of nitrogen is no longer beneficial to human health and is in fact causing humans harm.  Townsend et. al put it this way, “ the greatest net benefits are found at low to moderate levels of N use, and continued environmental N enrichment will greatly amplify the health costs,” (Townsend et. al. 2003).

           

            Nitrogen use has seen a rapid increase in India since 1950 as it did in many other countries going through their own “green revolutions.” In 1950-51, nitrogen use in India sat at 55,000 tons. This skyrocketed to 11.31 million tons by 2001-02. This was reflected in an increase in food production as well from 50.83 to 222 million tons (Gupta 2005). Nitrogen consumption varies by region in India with the highest consumption being in the north followed by the south, west and east. The increase in consumption in the north is much greater than in the other areas due to the increased cereal production, a high N demanding crop. In states like Punjab and Haryana, much food production has moved to rice-wheat production to keep up with population increase. Rice-wheat is a more nitrogen responsive crop, thus also increasing N fertilizer use (Gupta 2005).

           

            Furthermore, the nutrient use efficiency of N is very low. The use efficiency or how much of the nitrogen is removed by plants above ground varies between 30 and 50 percent depending on types of crops and management (Gupta 2005). This low use efficiency has environmental implications. Past observations report that about half of fertilizer applied to fields is either lost to leaching into ground waters as NO₃ or lost in the atmosphere as NH₃ and NO (Gupta 2005). Nitrogen lost this way is lost as pollution. Excess nitrogen in rivers and oceans cause eutrophication while excess nitrogen in the air can have serious health risks. 

            Excess nitrogen in the natural system has serious health risks, not only in India, but also in all parts of the world where excess nitrogen is a problem. Health risks include respiratory complications, cardiac disease and several cancers (Townsend et. al. 2003). For example, high NO levels in the air leads to production of tropospheric ozone, which in turn aggravates coughs, asthma, etc. High levels of nitrate in drinking water (defined by the World Health Organization as more than 10 ppm) can lead to reproductive health problems, methemoglobinemia (especially in infants) and cancer (Townsend et. al. 2003).  These health risks are amplified as more and more reactive nitrogen is added to the system.

            India, as a developing country, also has a more unique source of excess nitrogen. Field burning of crop residue or FBCR is a practice commonly seen in developing country and a growing problem because of the release of carbon and nitrogen emissions. About 76 percent of this biomass that is burned is from rice and wheat crops, which as already mentioned are major crops in India. Burning this biomass is estimated to emit, in 2010, 0.35 Tg of nitrogen and 140.6 Gg of NO_x. Indian states such as U.P, Punjab, Haryana, M.P, Maharashtra, T.N, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and W.B have been found to contribute maximum to the Indian FBCR emissions,” (Sahai et. al., 2010). As we have already seen excess NO_x emissions have serious health risks.

           

            FBCR is also a concern because it leads to loss of soil carbon and nitrogen, nutrients needed for subsequent growing seasons. Is it possible that FBCR is linked to increased nitrogen fertilizer use? Perhaps stopping FBCR could have an effect on the amount of fertilizer being used in India, but more research needs to be done before correlation can be suggested.

           

            Human alteration of the nitrogen cycle is increasingly becoming a problem globally. Whether it is the worldwide case of the Green Revolution and nitrogen fertilizer or the more specialized case of FBCR in India, too much nitrogen is a classic case of too much of a good thing. The health benefits (i.e. increased food production) have peaked and now the increasing use of nitrogen is only amplifying health risks. As for what can be done to combat this, there is still much to be learned. In places like the northern region of India where cereal crops demand nitrogen to produce and food production has to keep pace with a growing population, you can’t quit N cold turkey. Instead more efficient methods need to be developed and farmers need more education as to why FBCR is detrimental. But this brings up a whole new set of issues in India. For now I leave you with this small snippet on nitrogen and India

Sources:

Gupta, A.P. “Nitrogen use scenario in India” Science in China. 2005. <http://www.springerlink.com.libproxy.furman.edu/content/a0122v881617764r/fulltext.pdf>

Sahai, S. et. al. “Assessment of trace gases, carbon and nitrogen emissions

from field burning of agricultural residues in India” Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst. 2010. <http://www.springerlink.com.libproxy.furman.edu/content/8h76543580550904/fulltext.pdf>

Townsend, A.R., et. al. “Human health effects of changing global nitrogen cycle” The Ecological Society of America. 2003. 

Gender in India: The Case of Rural Women

As a female soon to be traveling through India, I believe it is only natural to consider the history of gender discrimination in this very clearly patriarchal society. Gender almost seems to be an enigma in India, a country with a female president alongside gender issues such as female feticide and dowry deaths. And of course there is the special case of Kerala – a lone matriarchy in a sea of male dominance. Yes gender issues are vastly complex and varying in a country as populous and diverse as India, so I will only attempt to scratch the surface and to only look at a specific case, that of poor rural women.

            The case of rural women and gender discrimination is an interesting one. Women are the workhorse when it comes to the care of the household such as foraging for food and fire materials yet “the is a systematic anti-female bias in the allocation within rural households of subsistence resources controlled by men including resources used for food, health care, education and other basic needs,” (Agarwal 1997).   This means that although the rural females are expected to provide these “subsistence resources” they actually have less access to these than their husbands. Women in rural settings do much if not the entire gathering from forest, rivers, wells, etc. In some cases the women are the sole economic providers for their families. Yet at the same time women have little to no access to private resources such as agricultural land.  Thus their job is made that much harder by their lack of resources. This is especially disturbing considering that women tend to focus more on the needs of the family than men as can be seen by the fact that women tend to spend personal income on their children where men tend to spend their incomes on themselves (Agarwal 1997).  In “Property right’s in women’s empowerment in rural India: a review” the authors say that, “various studies also reveal that while men keep a sizeable portion of their income for their personal consumption on liquor, tobacco, clothes and so on, women spend almost the whole of their income on family's needs,” (Roy and Tisdell 2002).  Thus it seems it would make sense to put more resources into the hands of these poor rural women, but I will look more at this later.  

            Rural women aren’t only faced with inequalities in their roles as household providers but also in potential economic opportunities as well. Females tend to have less employment opportunities over all as well as less “occupational mobility,” lack of training and a wage gap (Agarwal 1997).  Not to mention rural women already have the consuming job of supporting their household’s physical needs. The major problem here lies in the fact that the labor they perform to do this is undertaken within their own homes and therefore “not recognized as an economic activity,” (Roy and Tisdell 2002). Women can find employment working in agriculture but this brings up another issue. It seems that with the tasks appointed to rural women and their subsequent skill set, land ownership would be very beneficial to rural women, but they meet discrimination here again. Land is held in the males names and passed from father to eldest son This leaves wives, mothers, sisters, daughters dependent on male family members, offering no permanent security for themselves or their families because women are cultivating land held by others (Roy and Tisdell 2002). If property rights were given to women they could find empowerment, not to mention the positive environmental effects on the land as well.

           

            To change the plight of rural women education, property rights and female participation, among other factors should be considered. It was observed by Roy and Tisdell that women with land titles were treated better by male family members and found more respect in social settings because they were not seen as economically dependent. Economic independence could be a step towards reducing gender bias overall (Roy and Tisdell 2002). Empowering women goes beyond positive personal effects. For example, commons are better protected and regulated when the women are included and cooperate as they are the ones that use the commons and thus the ones that will uphold protective regulations. A specific example of this can be seen in forests where women have a clearer and more educated opinion in species selection when trying to reverse deforestation. They have the needs of their families in mind and therefore chose a variety of species for food, medicine, fire fodder, etc., which means easier selection for women in the future (Agarwal 1997). Roy and Tisdell observe that land ownership by women often ensures better care of the land in the long term because women are concerned about the future welfare of their families. Roy and Tisdell write, “Since the land use patterns of men are usually more destructive of nature than that of women who are directly concerned with the protection and regeneration of forest for fuel, fodder and other non-timber forest produce, land in women's name will lead to the greater preservation of ecology and environment,” (Roy and Tisdell 2002). They furthermore propose that property rights for women could have an effect on urbanization. Since most rural women are not economically employed, many rural families migrate to cities for more economic opportunities. Therefore, land rights and subsequent employment of females could potentially slow down this migration (Roy and Tisdell 2002).

            I once heard that India is a country of contradictions and I believe this can be seen in the case of gender discrimination, particularly in the case of rural women. These women are expected to provide for the physical needs of their families yet lack access to or ownership of necessary resources. There are clearly positive effects to be seen if this contradiction was righted, but India has a long way to go in this area. This is only a specific subset of gender issues plaguing the country, but this case is representative of the country of contradictions.

“Gender, Environment, and Poverty Interlinks: Regional Variations and Temporal Shifts in Rural India, 1971-91” Bina Agarwal, 1997.

“Property rights in women's empowerment in rural India: a review “ K.C. Roy and C.A. Tisdell, 2002.